General Equilibrium Theory (सामान्य संतुलन): Hindi–Hinglish Notes | UGC NET / UP PGT

MICROECONOMICS • UGC NET ECONOMICS / UP PGT

General Equilibrium Theory — एक market से पूरी economy तक

गेहूँ महँगा हुआ तो केवल गेहूँ की demand नहीं बदलती। Rice की demand, खेतों में labour की demand, wages और किसानों की income भी बदल सकती है। General Equilibrium (सामान्य संतुलन) इन connected markets को साथ देखता है: consumers और firms की best choices एक-दूसरे के साथ consistent हों और markets clear हों।

Walras’ LawEdgeworth Box5 exact graphsExchange + Production100 MCQs की अलग test post

Syllabus connection: Uploaded UGC NET Economics syllabus, Unit 1 में General Equilibrium Analysis स्पष्ट है। Uploaded UP PGT syllabus में यह अलग heading नहीं है; consumer, production, markets और factor pricing इसके prerequisites हैं। Advanced mathematical results को NET preparation की extra depth के रूप में पढ़ें।

1. Partial और General Equilibrium ⭐

Point Partial equilibrium General equilibrium
Focus एक market; बाकी relevant conditions fixed Interdependent markets together
Usual association Alfred Marshall Léon Walras
Income / feedback Other-market feedback को hold fixed या ignore करते हैं Goods prices, factor prices, endowment income और profits jointly linked
Example Tea की price change; coffee price fixed Tea–coffee–labour–income adjustments together
Use Spillovers छोटे हों तो useful approximation Feedbacks significant हों तो fuller model

Equilibrium = three checks: (1) Consumers अपने budgets में utility maximize करें; (2) firms feasible technology में profit maximize करें; (3) choices मिलाकर goods और factor markets clear हों। केवल demand = supply लिख देना पर्याप्त नहीं, यदि demands optimal choices से नहीं बनी हैं। Pure exchange model में production नहीं होती, इसलिए firm check नहीं है।

⚠️ Exam Trap: General equilibrium का मतलब केवल macroeconomics या “सभी prices बराबर” नहीं। यह microeconomic agents और markets की simultaneous consistency है। सभी markets को model के relevant scope में समझें; every real-world market explicitly शामिल होना जरूरी नहीं।

2. Models किसने, कब और किस publication में दिए?

Economist / year Book / publication Contribution / memory
Léon Walras — 1874–1877 Éléments d’économie politique pure, ou Théorie de la richesse sociale; English: Elements of Pure Economics Systematic mathematical GE; first edition two instalments, 1874 और 1877। Single-year MCQ में 1874 standard first-publication answer है।
Francis Ysidro Edgeworth — 1881 Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences Exchange, bargaining और contract-curve analysis। Modern box diagram का पूरा historical development केवल एक original drawing में समेटना गलत; exam association Edgeworth है।
Alfred Marshall — 1890 Principles of Economics Partial-equilibrium approach की प्रमुख association; GE के contrast में याद रखें।
Kenneth J. Arrow + Gérard Debreu — 1954 Existence of an Equilibrium for a Competitive Economy, Econometrica 22(3), July, pp. 265–290 Specified assumptions के तहत rigorous competitive-equilibrium existence theorem; automatic uniqueness/stability नहीं।
Lionel McKenzie — 1954 On Equilibrium in Graham’s Model of World Trade and Other Competitive Systems, Econometrica 22(2), April, pp. 147–161 Independent modern existence contribution; Arrow–Debreu paper से अलग publication।
Gérard Debreu — 1959 Theory of Value: An Axiomatic Analysis of Economic Equilibrium, Cowles Foundation Monograph 17 Axiomatic treatment: commodities, prices, consumers, producers, equilibrium, optimum और uncertainty।

Memory chain: 74–77 Walras → 81 Edgeworth → 90 Marshall → 54 existence proofs → 59 Debreu book. Walras: whole-market system; Edgeworth: exchange box; Arrow–Debreu: existence; Debreu: value book। 1954 की English Walras translation को original 1874 publication न मानें।

3. Model setup — endowment से income बनती है

प्रारम्भिक संपत्ति (Endowment) ωᵢ वह goods/factors bundle है जो consumer i के पास trading से पहले है। Allocation xᵢ trading के बाद consumption bundle है। Pure exchange में total available goods Ω=Σωᵢ fixed रहते हैं; trade ownership बदलता है, aggregate quantity नहीं।

Pure exchange: mᵢ=p·ωᵢ; choose xᵢ≥0 to maximize uᵢ(xᵢ), subject to p·xᵢ≤p·ωᵢ।
Feasibility: Σxᵢ≤Ω (free disposal permitted); with strictly desirable goods and positive prices, market clearing Σxᵢ=Ω।
Net demand: xᵢ−ωᵢ; positive = net buyer, negative = net seller।

सामान्य benchmark assumptions: Price-taking agents, finite agents/goods, divisible goods, continuous preferences, local non-satiation, suitable endowments और feasible technologies। Convex preferences/production sets existence के standard sufficient-assumption packages में important हैं। Strict convex preferences unique individual demand दे सकती हैं; इससे पूरी economy का equilibrium necessarily unique नहीं होता।

Production economy income: mᵢ=p·ωᵢ+Σⱼθᵢⱼπⱼ; θ ownership share, π firm profit। If endowment consists of labour and capital, factor income wLᵢ+rKᵢ शामिल होगा। Firms को ignore करके consumer income fixed मानना GE feedback छिपा सकता है।

Numeraire (मूल्य-मापक): एक positively priced good की price 1 रखकर बाकी prices उसके units में express करते हैं। q=pₓ/pᵧ; pᵧ=1 होने पर q=pₓ। यह good free नहीं हुआ: price 1 है, 0 नहीं। Pure exchange में सभी prices t>0 से multiply हों तो wealth भी t गुना और demands unchanged: केवल relative prices matter करते हैं।

4. Walras’ Law — equilibrium से पहले भी true ⭐

zₖ(p)=Σᵢxᵢₖ(p,p·ωᵢ)−Ωₖ।
Walras’ Law: p·z(p)=Σₖpₖzₖ(p)=0, when all household budgets exhaust in this closed pure-exchange model।
Two goods: pₓzₓ+pᵧzᵧ=0 ⇒ zᵧ=−(pₓ/pᵧ)zₓ।

Logic: हर consumer total spending = endowment value रखता है। सबके budgets जोड़ें तो aggregate demanded goods की value = total available goods की value। इसलिए excess demand का price-weighted value zero है, भले अलग markets clear न हों।

Key implication: n−1 markets clear हों और remaining good की price positive हो, तो उसका market भी clear होता है। Therefore n market-clearing equations में at most n−1 independent हैं; usually one price normalization करते हैं। Walras’ Law कोई “equilibrium exists” proof नहीं है।

⚠️ Quantity sum trap: Σzₖ=0 जरूरी नहीं; Σpₖzₖ=0 चाहिए। Prices(2,1), zₓ=3 हों तो zᵧ=−6; quantity sum−3 है, value sum0। Positive-price assumption हटाकर n−1 implication blindly न लगाएँ।

Zero-price / free-good case: With free disposal, general equilibrium conditions can be zₖ≤0, pₖ≥0 और pₖzₖ=0। Positive-price goods clear; zero-price goods may have excess supply. यदि remaining pₖ=0 है, Walras’ Law उसके zₖ को zero करने के लिए बाध्य नहीं करती।

Walras’ Law बनाम Say’s Law: Walras’ Law model budgets से निकली value identity है। Say’s Law supply–demand पर historical macroeconomic proposition है; दोनों synonyms नहीं। Budget saving या money demand वाली economy में omitted markets को भूलकर केवल selected goods पर identity न लगाएँ।

5. Edgeworth Box कैसे पढ़ें? ⭐

Two consumers A,B और two goods X,Y। Width total X=Ωₓ, height total Y=Ωᵧ। A का origin bottom-left Oₐ; X right, Y up। B का origin top-right Oᵦ; उसके X left, Y down। Box का प्रत्येक point एक feasible division दिखाता है।

If A consumes (a,b), B consumes (Ωₓ−a, Ωᵧ−b)।
Example: totals(10,10), A(8,2) ⇒ B(2,8)।

Indifference curves: A की higher utility उसके origin से northeast जाती है। B की higher utility उसके own origin से southwest जाती है। दोनों consumers के MU ratio में MRSₓᵧ=MUₓ/MUᵧ positive magnitude use करेंगे; A-coordinate graph पर IC slope−MRS है। B-axis reversal से MRS का arbitrary minus मत बदलें।

Lens (mutually beneficial trade region): Endowment through ICs से bounded region जहाँ दोनों initial utility जितनी या उससे अधिक utility पा सकते हैं। Lens के strict interior में दोनों strictly better; boundary पर एक consumer indifferent हो सकता है। हर box point individually rational नहीं होता।

Edgeworth box: endowment, gains and equilibriumTotals X10 Y10. Both utilities XY. A endowment8,2 and B2,8, initial utilities16. Contract curve A Y equals A X. Core diagonal segment4to6. Competitive price ratio1 allocation5,5 for both, utilities25.Edgeworth box: endowment, gains and equilibriumB: X increases to the left0100102828464664648282100100A: Y increases upB: Y increases downO_AO_BA: X increases to the rightomega (8,2)E (5,5)(4,4)(6,6)Initial IC_A: XY = 16Initial IC_B: X_B Y_B = 16Blue dashed: common budget | Green: final ICs | Purple: coreBoth origins are labelled; each box point divides the fixed totals.
Graph 1: Totals (10,10); A origin bottom-left, B top-right। ωᴬ=(8,2), ωᴮ=(2,8), दोनों की utility XY। Shade: initial-utility lens; purple: diagonal का core segment 4–6। At q=1, E=(5,5) each: final utility 25, initial utility 16। Budget X+Y=10, ω और E से गुजरता है।

6. Contract Curve, Core और Competitive Equilibrium

Contract curve: Box के सभी Pareto-efficient feasible allocations। वहाँ किसी को बेहतर बनाने के लिए किसी और को worse करना पड़ता है। Smooth interior और convex preferences में:

Exchange efficiency: MRSᴬₓᵧ=MRSᴮₓᵧ।
Competitive interior optimum: MRSᴬₓᵧ=MRSᴮₓᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ।

क्यों equality? A एक extra X के लिए 4Y छोड़ने को तैयार, B केवल1Y माँगता है, तो A को X देकर बीच के exchange rate पर दोनों gain कर सकते हैं। MRS difference trade opportunity है। Equality local no-gain condition है; usual global convexity/feasibility conditions के साथ efficiency conclusion लें। Corners और kinks पर derivative equality necessary नहीं।

Concept What it includes Main trap
Contract curve All efficient allocations for given preferences/resources पूरा curve fair या equally distributed नहीं
Core, two-person exchange Efficient allocations that both weakly prefer to initial endowment; no coalition can block Endowment changes से individually rational segment बदलता है
Competitive equilibrium Common prices पर optimal affordable choices + clearing Any tangency point is not necessarily affordable from current endowment
Budget line Value of A’s endowment at common prices; passes through ω Arbitrary parallel line cannot represent initial wealth

Identical Cobb–Douglas example: uᴬ=xᴬyᴬ,uᴮ=xᴮyᴮ, totals(10,10)। Equality y/x=(10−y)/(10−x) gives y=x। Contract curve diagonal है। यदि ωᴬ=(8,2),ωᴮ=(2,8), initial utility दोनों16; diagonal पर t²≥16 और(10−t)²≥16 ⇒ 4≤t≤6। यही two-person core segment है। Competitive outcome(5,5) दोनों के लिए; u25>16।

Contract curve need not be the diagonalA utilityXY, B utilityX_B squared Y_B. Totals10,10. Contract curve yA=20xA/(10+xA). Interior point5,20/3 equalizes both MRS at4/3.Contract curve need not be the diagonalB: X increases to the left0100102828464664648282100100A: Y increases upB: Y increases downO_AO_BA: X increases to the rightT (5,20/3)CC: y = 20x / (10+x)Dashed: y = xBlue: A IC | Orange: B IC | Green: efficient allocationsAt T: MRS_A = MRS_B = 4/3; efficiency alone does not pick wealth.
Graph 2: A की utility XY, B की utility Xᴮ²Yᴮ; totals (10,10)। Interior contract curve y=20x/(10+x), इसलिए diagonal जरूरी नहीं। At T: A=(5,20/3), B=(5,10/3), दोनों की MRS=4/3। यह efficiency illustration है; original endowment budget अलग से check करें।
⚠️ Contract curve always diagonal नहीं: Preferences अलग हों तो curve बदलती है। ऊपर दूसरे graph में uᴬ=xy,uᴮ=xᴮ²yᴮ, totals(10,10) से y=20x/(10+x)। Feasible corners/endpoints को interior algebra से अलग देखें।

7. Pure-exchange equilibrium कैसे solve करें?

  1. Normalize: pᵧ=1; q=pₓ/pᵧ>0।
  2. Endowment incomes: mᵢ=qωᵢₓ+ωᵢᵧ।
  3. Demands: Utility function के अनुसार ordinary demands; corner/kink possibilities check करें।
  4. Clear X: Σxᵢₓ=Ωₓ; solve q।
  5. Verify: Other market, individual budgets, nonnegativity, optimum और net trades check करें।
Two Cobb–Douglas consumers: uᵢ=xᵢ^αᵢ yᵢ^(1−αᵢ), 0<αᵢ<1।
xᵢ=αᵢmᵢ/q, yᵢ=(1−αᵢ)mᵢ।
Price ratio: q=[Σᵢαᵢωᵢᵧ]/[Σᵢ(1−αᵢ)ωᵢₓ], provided numerator/denominator positive।

Short illustration: αᴬ=αᴮ=½, endowments(8,2),(2,8)। Aggregate X demand=(10q+10)/(2q)=5+5/q। Set equal10 ⇒ q1। Both incomes10; demands(5,5)। A sells3X and buys3Y; B opposite। Price×net trades balance for each consumer।

Important comparison: Identical homothetic preferences में aggregate demand can depend only on total wealth; wealth distribution still changes individual allocations। Heterogeneous tastes में same aggregate endowment with different distribution can change aggregate demand and equilibrium relative price। “Endowment does not matter” गलत है।

Offer curve: Relative prices बदलते हुए consumer की optimal feasible choices का locus, with income recomputed from endowment। Relevant offer curves की common allocation competitive outcome दे सकती है। Endowment point को automatic equilibrium न कहें: उस price पर endowment दोनों का optimum भी होना चाहिए।

Special preferences: u=min{x,y} में x=y=m/(q+1)। u=ax+by में utility per rupee a/q versus b compare करें; tie पर multiple optimal choices हो सकती हैं। Price tie होने से every demand selection market clear नहीं करती; clearing selections ढूँढनी होंगी। Complements वाले exchange examples में positive prices का continuum equilibrium भी दे सकता है, भले प्रत्येक given price पर individual demand unique हो।

8. Production के साथ General Equilibrium ⭐

अब goods quantities fixed नहीं; available labour और capital को sectors में बाँटकर outputs produce करते हैं। 2×2×2 benchmark: two consumers, two goods/sectors और two factors। इसकी तीन efficiency checks याद रखें:

Condition Interior formula Meaning
Exchange / consumption efficiency MRSᴬₓᵧ=MRSᴮₓᵧ Produced goods efficiently divided
Factor-allocation / production efficiency MRTSˣᴸᴷ=MRTSʸᴸᴷ=w/r Labour और capital efficiently divided between sectors
Product mix / overall efficiency MRSᴬ=MRSᴮ=MRTₓᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ Consumers’ willingness to trade equals technological opportunity cost
MRTSᴸᴷ: MPᴸ/MPᴷ; with L horizontal, K vertical, isoquant slope−MRTS।
MRTₓᵧ: −dY/dX on a downward-sloping PPF; units of Y sacrificed for extra X।
Under relevant competitive marginal-cost conditions: MRTₓᵧ=MCₓ/MCᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ।

PPF (Production Possibility Frontier): Efficient output combinations given resources/technology। Inside point: potentially unused resources/inefficient production in the benchmark model; outside: infeasible with current resources/technology। A point on PPF need not satisfy consumers’ desired product mix। For representative-consumer illustration, IC tangent to PPF gives MRS=MRT; multiple consumers require their allocation too।

Product mix: MRS equals MRTPPF Y=12-X squared. Representative utilityXY. OptimumX2Y8. MRT2X4 equals MRSY/X4 and price ratio4. Tangent value lineY16-4X.Product mix: MRS equals MRTOutput / consumption Y04812160123E (2,8)Value line: Y = 16 – 4XPPF: Y = 12 – X squaredIC: XY = 16Output / consumption XAt E: MRT = 2X = 4 = Y/X = MRS
Graph 3: Representative utility XY; PPF Y=12−X²। E=(2,8): MRS=8/2=4, MRT=2X=4। Tangent value line Y=16−4X की price ratio 4 है। Frontier alone optimum नहीं; utility और technology trade-offs match चाहिए।

Firm side: Competitive producer maximizes pₓX+pᵧY over feasible production plans. At an interior smooth PPF optimum, pₓ−pᵧMRT=0। If MRT<pₓ/pᵧ, a small move toward more X raises output value; if MRT>pₓ/pᵧ, toward more Y। Consumer and firm must face the same relevant prices without wedges for textbook equality।

Factor clearing: Lˣ+Lʸ=L̄ और Kˣ+Kʸ=K̄। Household factor income and owned profits fund expenditure; goods clearing requires total consumption = produced supply plus any goods endowment।

⚠️ MRS ≠ MRTS ≠ MRT: MRS consumer’s trade-off; MRTS inputs का trade-off; MRT outputs का technological trade-off। Competitive profits हर GE model में zero नहीं। Constant returns, price-taking, scalable technology और finite profit-maximizing production वाले benchmark में zero profits; decreasing returns में positive profits possible।

Linear activity / zero-profit rule: One unit of activity uses aᴸ labour,aᴷ capital and produces one X। Unit cost c=w aᴸ+r aᴷ। Under constant returns and free scaling, equilibrium requires pₓ≤c; if output positive, pₓ=c। If pₓ>c and no capacity constraint, profit is unbounded; if pₓ<c, inactive firm chooses zero activity।

9. Existence, Uniqueness और Stability अलग हैं ⭐

Question Meaning What does not follow automatically?
Existence At least one admissible equilibrium है? Unique / stable होना
Uniqueness Normalization के बाद only one equilibrium price vector/allocation? Adjustment convergence
Stability Specified dynamic process perturbation के बाद वापस लाता है? Global stability या uniqueness

Existence: Standard sufficient packages include continuity, convexity, non-satiation and suitable endowment/technology feasibility conditions। Specific theorem की पूरी hypotheses पढ़ें; केवल “perfect competition” या equations = unknowns गिनना proof नहीं। Fixed-point theorems (Brouwer for appropriate continuous functions, Kakutani for appropriate correspondences) proof tools हैं; इन्हें equilibrium adjustment mechanisms न समझें।

Tâtonnement (trial-and-error price adjustment): Standard Walrasian auctioneer story में prices announce, agents desired trades submit, excess demand के अनुसार prices revise; clearing prices मिलने तक actual disequilibrium trade नहीं होता। यह theoretical price-discovery process है, every actual market की literal description नहीं।

Two-good normalized illustration: q=pₓ/pᵧ, dq/dt=κzₓ(q), κ>0।
At equilibrium zₓ(q*)=0। If z′ₓ(q*)<0: locally asymptotically stable; if >0: unstable। If =0: first-order test inconclusive; higher-order terms देखें।
Discrete rule: qₜ₊₁=qₜ+κzₓ(qₜ); local stability requires |1+κz′ₓ(q*)|<1।
Stable price adjustment: arrows point toward q*Normalized price q, excess demandzX=5/q-5. Atq1 clears; qbelow1 excess demandraisesq, qabove1excesssupplylowersq. Continuous price rule qdot=kz stable.Stable price adjustment: arrows point toward q*Excess demand zX-30360.511.522.5q* = 1z > 0z < 0▶◀Relative price q = pX / pYq below 1: price rises | q above 1: price falls
Graph 4: Identical half-share consumers; total endowment (10,10): zₓ(q)=5/q−5। At q=1, demand 10 = supply 10। Continuous rule q̇=κz, κ>0 में q<1 rises, q>1 falls; derivative −5 locally restoring है।
Multiple roots: existence, uniqueness and stabilityIllustrative local reduced equationz(q)=(q-1)(q-2)(q-3), qdot=kz. Roots1,2,3; derivativepositiveat1and3unstable, negativeat2stable. Not a complete exchangeeconomy specification.Multiple roots: existence, uniqueness and stabilityIllustrative reduced excess demand z-1010.511.522.531: unstable2: stable3: unstableNormalized price qUnder qdot = k z: roots 1,3 unstable; root 2 stable
Graph 5: Local reduced-form illustration z(q)=(q−1)(q−2)(q−3)। तीन roots: 1,2,3। Continuous rule q̇=κz, κ>0 में केवल root 2 stable है। यह shape illustration है; full exchange economy का specified global model नहीं।
⚠️ Stable demand-looking curve पर्याप्त नहीं: The stability test depends on the specified adjustment rule and whether prices or quantities are on axes। Continuous negative slope can be stable; a very large discrete adjustment step can still cause divergence। Multimarket stability requires the reduced system’s eigenvalues, not just one own derivative।

10. NET advanced extensions / common confusions

  • Homogeneity: z(tp)=z(p), t>0। If differentiable, J(p)p=0, where J=Dz। Hence full unnormalized price Jacobian has a zero direction; normalize before counting dynamic directions।
  • Derivative of Walras’ Law: z(p)+J(p)ᵀp=0। At equilibrium z=0 ⇒ Jᵀp=0। Off equilibrium Jᵀp=0 blindly लिखना गलत।
  • Slutsky versus GE Jacobian: A compensated individual-demand matrix has symmetry/negative-semidefinite restrictions under regular conditions। GE aggregate excess-demand Jacobian includes endowment-income effects; वह generally symmetric या negative semidefinite नहीं। Pure exchange में chain rule और Slutsky से Jₖⱼ=Σᵢ[Sᵢₖⱼ+(ωᵢⱼ−xᵢⱼ)∂xᵢₖ/∂mᵢ]। Endowment income derivative ωᵢⱼ है; uncompensated derivative से −xᵢⱼ term आता है।
  • Gross substitutes: Good j की price बढ़ने पर other goods की aggregate excess demands do not fall in the relevant formulation। Appropriate strict gross-substitutes and regularity assumptions strong uniqueness/stability results दे सकते हैं। Weak nonnegativity अकेले every model में unique stable equilibrium नहीं देती।
  • Sonnenschein–Mantel–Debreu insight: Well-behaved individual preferences do not generally force aggregate excess demand to have a simple downward-sloping shape। Continuity, degree-zero homogeneity और Walras’ Law जैसी basic aggregate restrictions automatic global uniqueness/stability सुनिश्चित नहीं करतीं। This is an advanced aggregate-demand result, not the Arrow–Debreu 1954 existence theorem।
  • Free goods: z≤0,p≥0,p·z=0 allows excess supply only in zero-priced goods। Good positively priced है तो complementary slackness forces its excess demand zero।
  • Uncertainty extension: Commodity can be identified by physical good, date, location and state। Complete contingent markets allow state-specific trades; expected-utility weights and contingent prices अलग objects हैं। Main risk topic में detail करेंगे।
  • Convexity: Increasing returns/nonconvex technologies can make standard existence/supporting-price arguments fail; इससे every nonconvex economy has no equilibrium नहीं निकलता।

Welfare connection: Suitable competitive-market conditions और local non-satiation के साथ competitive equilibrium Pareto efficient होता है (First Welfare Theorem)। Efficiency equal income या fair distribution की guarantee नहीं। Second Theorem के decentralization result में additional convexity/support and wealth-redistribution conditions चाहिए। Welfare criteria और full theorem treatment अगली अलग Notes post में होगा।

11. Last-minute revision table ⭐

Clue Remember Exam trap
Whole connected economy GE: individual optimum + clearing Market clearing alone incomplete
Walras book 1874–1877; Elements of Pure Economics 1954 translation ≠ original
Endowment income mᵢ=p·ωᵢ GE price change can change wealth
Numeraire One positive price normalized to1 Not zero / free good
Walras’ Law Σpₖzₖ=0 at budget-balanced prices Not Σzₖ=0; not only at equilibrium
n goods At most n−1 independent clearing equations Remaining price positive for implication
Box coordinates B=totals−A B origin top-right
Contract curve All efficient feasible allocations Not always diagonal / fair
Core, two persons Efficient + individual rationality Depends on initial endowment
Interior exchange MRSᴬ=MRSᴮ=pₓ/pᵧ Check budgets/corners too
Interior factor allocation MRTSˣ=MRTSʸ=w/r Not output-price ratio
Overall product mix MRS=MRT=pₓ/pᵧ PPF point alone insufficient
Arrow–Debreu 1954 existence under assumptions Existence ≠ uniqueness ≠ stability
Tâtonnement Excess demand raises price No disequilibrium trade in benchmark story
Discrete price adjustment |1+κz′|<1 Step size matters

One-line memory: Consumer MRS, Producer MRTS, Products MRT; Walras weighted zero, Edgeworth two origins, Arrow existence.

अपनी तैयारी चेक करें – इस Topic के 100 MCQs हल करें →

हर section के बाद weak concepts की Notes में वापस revision करें।

Sources / publication records

Graphs और examples independently constructed हैं। Questions original exam-oriented practice हैं; verified official PYQs का दावा नहीं है। Uploaded NET और PGT syllabi की scope distinction ऊपर दी गई है।

Leave a Reply