MICROECONOMICS • UGC NET ECONOMICS / UP PGT
General Equilibrium Theory — एक market से पूरी economy तक
गेहूँ महँगा हुआ तो केवल गेहूँ की demand नहीं बदलती। Rice की demand, खेतों में labour की demand, wages और किसानों की income भी बदल सकती है। General Equilibrium (सामान्य संतुलन) इन connected markets को साथ देखता है: consumers और firms की best choices एक-दूसरे के साथ consistent हों और markets clear हों।
Syllabus connection: Uploaded UGC NET Economics syllabus, Unit 1 में General Equilibrium Analysis स्पष्ट है। Uploaded UP PGT syllabus में यह अलग heading नहीं है; consumer, production, markets और factor pricing इसके prerequisites हैं। Advanced mathematical results को NET preparation की extra depth के रूप में पढ़ें।
25 Easy • 25 Moderate • 25 Hard • 25 Hardest; answer और explanation हर question के साथ।
1. Partial और General Equilibrium ⭐
| Point | Partial equilibrium | General equilibrium |
|---|---|---|
| Focus | एक market; बाकी relevant conditions fixed | Interdependent markets together |
| Usual association | Alfred Marshall | Léon Walras |
| Income / feedback | Other-market feedback को hold fixed या ignore करते हैं | Goods prices, factor prices, endowment income और profits jointly linked |
| Example | Tea की price change; coffee price fixed | Tea–coffee–labour–income adjustments together |
| Use | Spillovers छोटे हों तो useful approximation | Feedbacks significant हों तो fuller model |
Equilibrium = three checks: (1) Consumers अपने budgets में utility maximize करें; (2) firms feasible technology में profit maximize करें; (3) choices मिलाकर goods और factor markets clear हों। केवल demand = supply लिख देना पर्याप्त नहीं, यदि demands optimal choices से नहीं बनी हैं। Pure exchange model में production नहीं होती, इसलिए firm check नहीं है।
2. Models किसने, कब और किस publication में दिए?
| Economist / year | Book / publication | Contribution / memory |
|---|---|---|
| Léon Walras — 1874–1877 | Éléments d’économie politique pure, ou Théorie de la richesse sociale; English: Elements of Pure Economics | Systematic mathematical GE; first edition two instalments, 1874 और 1877। Single-year MCQ में 1874 standard first-publication answer है। |
| Francis Ysidro Edgeworth — 1881 | Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences | Exchange, bargaining और contract-curve analysis। Modern box diagram का पूरा historical development केवल एक original drawing में समेटना गलत; exam association Edgeworth है। |
| Alfred Marshall — 1890 | Principles of Economics | Partial-equilibrium approach की प्रमुख association; GE के contrast में याद रखें। |
| Kenneth J. Arrow + Gérard Debreu — 1954 | Existence of an Equilibrium for a Competitive Economy, Econometrica 22(3), July, pp. 265–290 | Specified assumptions के तहत rigorous competitive-equilibrium existence theorem; automatic uniqueness/stability नहीं। |
| Lionel McKenzie — 1954 | On Equilibrium in Graham’s Model of World Trade and Other Competitive Systems, Econometrica 22(2), April, pp. 147–161 | Independent modern existence contribution; Arrow–Debreu paper से अलग publication। |
| Gérard Debreu — 1959 | Theory of Value: An Axiomatic Analysis of Economic Equilibrium, Cowles Foundation Monograph 17 | Axiomatic treatment: commodities, prices, consumers, producers, equilibrium, optimum और uncertainty। |
Memory chain: 74–77 Walras → 81 Edgeworth → 90 Marshall → 54 existence proofs → 59 Debreu book. Walras: whole-market system; Edgeworth: exchange box; Arrow–Debreu: existence; Debreu: value book। 1954 की English Walras translation को original 1874 publication न मानें।
3. Model setup — endowment से income बनती है
प्रारम्भिक संपत्ति (Endowment) ωᵢ वह goods/factors bundle है जो consumer i के पास trading से पहले है। Allocation xᵢ trading के बाद consumption bundle है। Pure exchange में total available goods Ω=Σωᵢ fixed रहते हैं; trade ownership बदलता है, aggregate quantity नहीं।
Feasibility: Σxᵢ≤Ω (free disposal permitted); with strictly desirable goods and positive prices, market clearing Σxᵢ=Ω।
Net demand: xᵢ−ωᵢ; positive = net buyer, negative = net seller।
सामान्य benchmark assumptions: Price-taking agents, finite agents/goods, divisible goods, continuous preferences, local non-satiation, suitable endowments और feasible technologies। Convex preferences/production sets existence के standard sufficient-assumption packages में important हैं। Strict convex preferences unique individual demand दे सकती हैं; इससे पूरी economy का equilibrium necessarily unique नहीं होता।
Production economy income: mᵢ=p·ωᵢ+Σⱼθᵢⱼπⱼ; θ ownership share, π firm profit। If endowment consists of labour and capital, factor income wLᵢ+rKᵢ शामिल होगा। Firms को ignore करके consumer income fixed मानना GE feedback छिपा सकता है।
Numeraire (मूल्य-मापक): एक positively priced good की price 1 रखकर बाकी prices उसके units में express करते हैं। q=pₓ/pᵧ; pᵧ=1 होने पर q=pₓ। यह good free नहीं हुआ: price 1 है, 0 नहीं। Pure exchange में सभी prices t>0 से multiply हों तो wealth भी t गुना और demands unchanged: केवल relative prices matter करते हैं।
4. Walras’ Law — equilibrium से पहले भी true ⭐
Walras’ Law: p·z(p)=Σₖpₖzₖ(p)=0, when all household budgets exhaust in this closed pure-exchange model।
Two goods: pₓzₓ+pᵧzᵧ=0 ⇒ zᵧ=−(pₓ/pᵧ)zₓ।
Logic: हर consumer total spending = endowment value रखता है। सबके budgets जोड़ें तो aggregate demanded goods की value = total available goods की value। इसलिए excess demand का price-weighted value zero है, भले अलग markets clear न हों।
Key implication: n−1 markets clear हों और remaining good की price positive हो, तो उसका market भी clear होता है। Therefore n market-clearing equations में at most n−1 independent हैं; usually one price normalization करते हैं। Walras’ Law कोई “equilibrium exists” proof नहीं है।
Zero-price / free-good case: With free disposal, general equilibrium conditions can be zₖ≤0, pₖ≥0 और pₖzₖ=0। Positive-price goods clear; zero-price goods may have excess supply. यदि remaining pₖ=0 है, Walras’ Law उसके zₖ को zero करने के लिए बाध्य नहीं करती।
Walras’ Law बनाम Say’s Law: Walras’ Law model budgets से निकली value identity है। Say’s Law supply–demand पर historical macroeconomic proposition है; दोनों synonyms नहीं। Budget saving या money demand वाली economy में omitted markets को भूलकर केवल selected goods पर identity न लगाएँ।
5. Edgeworth Box कैसे पढ़ें? ⭐
Two consumers A,B और two goods X,Y। Width total X=Ωₓ, height total Y=Ωᵧ। A का origin bottom-left Oₐ; X right, Y up। B का origin top-right Oᵦ; उसके X left, Y down। Box का प्रत्येक point एक feasible division दिखाता है।
Example: totals(10,10), A(8,2) ⇒ B(2,8)।
Indifference curves: A की higher utility उसके origin से northeast जाती है। B की higher utility उसके own origin से southwest जाती है। दोनों consumers के MU ratio में MRSₓᵧ=MUₓ/MUᵧ positive magnitude use करेंगे; A-coordinate graph पर IC slope−MRS है। B-axis reversal से MRS का arbitrary minus मत बदलें।
Lens (mutually beneficial trade region): Endowment through ICs से bounded region जहाँ दोनों initial utility जितनी या उससे अधिक utility पा सकते हैं। Lens के strict interior में दोनों strictly better; boundary पर एक consumer indifferent हो सकता है। हर box point individually rational नहीं होता।
6. Contract Curve, Core और Competitive Equilibrium
Contract curve: Box के सभी Pareto-efficient feasible allocations। वहाँ किसी को बेहतर बनाने के लिए किसी और को worse करना पड़ता है। Smooth interior और convex preferences में:
Competitive interior optimum: MRSᴬₓᵧ=MRSᴮₓᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ।
क्यों equality? A एक extra X के लिए 4Y छोड़ने को तैयार, B केवल1Y माँगता है, तो A को X देकर बीच के exchange rate पर दोनों gain कर सकते हैं। MRS difference trade opportunity है। Equality local no-gain condition है; usual global convexity/feasibility conditions के साथ efficiency conclusion लें। Corners और kinks पर derivative equality necessary नहीं।
| Concept | What it includes | Main trap |
|---|---|---|
| Contract curve | All efficient allocations for given preferences/resources | पूरा curve fair या equally distributed नहीं |
| Core, two-person exchange | Efficient allocations that both weakly prefer to initial endowment; no coalition can block | Endowment changes से individually rational segment बदलता है |
| Competitive equilibrium | Common prices पर optimal affordable choices + clearing | Any tangency point is not necessarily affordable from current endowment |
| Budget line | Value of A’s endowment at common prices; passes through ω | Arbitrary parallel line cannot represent initial wealth |
Identical Cobb–Douglas example: uᴬ=xᴬyᴬ,uᴮ=xᴮyᴮ, totals(10,10)। Equality y/x=(10−y)/(10−x) gives y=x। Contract curve diagonal है। यदि ωᴬ=(8,2),ωᴮ=(2,8), initial utility दोनों16; diagonal पर t²≥16 और(10−t)²≥16 ⇒ 4≤t≤6। यही two-person core segment है। Competitive outcome(5,5) दोनों के लिए; u25>16।
7. Pure-exchange equilibrium कैसे solve करें?
- Normalize: pᵧ=1; q=pₓ/pᵧ>0।
- Endowment incomes: mᵢ=qωᵢₓ+ωᵢᵧ।
- Demands: Utility function के अनुसार ordinary demands; corner/kink possibilities check करें।
- Clear X: Σxᵢₓ=Ωₓ; solve q।
- Verify: Other market, individual budgets, nonnegativity, optimum और net trades check करें।
xᵢ=αᵢmᵢ/q, yᵢ=(1−αᵢ)mᵢ।
Price ratio: q=[Σᵢαᵢωᵢᵧ]/[Σᵢ(1−αᵢ)ωᵢₓ], provided numerator/denominator positive।
Short illustration: αᴬ=αᴮ=½, endowments(8,2),(2,8)। Aggregate X demand=(10q+10)/(2q)=5+5/q। Set equal10 ⇒ q1। Both incomes10; demands(5,5)। A sells3X and buys3Y; B opposite। Price×net trades balance for each consumer।
Important comparison: Identical homothetic preferences में aggregate demand can depend only on total wealth; wealth distribution still changes individual allocations। Heterogeneous tastes में same aggregate endowment with different distribution can change aggregate demand and equilibrium relative price। “Endowment does not matter” गलत है।
Offer curve: Relative prices बदलते हुए consumer की optimal feasible choices का locus, with income recomputed from endowment। Relevant offer curves की common allocation competitive outcome दे सकती है। Endowment point को automatic equilibrium न कहें: उस price पर endowment दोनों का optimum भी होना चाहिए।
Special preferences: u=min{x,y} में x=y=m/(q+1)। u=ax+by में utility per rupee a/q versus b compare करें; tie पर multiple optimal choices हो सकती हैं। Price tie होने से every demand selection market clear नहीं करती; clearing selections ढूँढनी होंगी। Complements वाले exchange examples में positive prices का continuum equilibrium भी दे सकता है, भले प्रत्येक given price पर individual demand unique हो।
8. Production के साथ General Equilibrium ⭐
अब goods quantities fixed नहीं; available labour और capital को sectors में बाँटकर outputs produce करते हैं। 2×2×2 benchmark: two consumers, two goods/sectors और two factors। इसकी तीन efficiency checks याद रखें:
| Condition | Interior formula | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Exchange / consumption efficiency | MRSᴬₓᵧ=MRSᴮₓᵧ | Produced goods efficiently divided |
| Factor-allocation / production efficiency | MRTSˣᴸᴷ=MRTSʸᴸᴷ=w/r | Labour और capital efficiently divided between sectors |
| Product mix / overall efficiency | MRSᴬ=MRSᴮ=MRTₓᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ | Consumers’ willingness to trade equals technological opportunity cost |
MRTₓᵧ: −dY/dX on a downward-sloping PPF; units of Y sacrificed for extra X।
Under relevant competitive marginal-cost conditions: MRTₓᵧ=MCₓ/MCᵧ=pₓ/pᵧ।
PPF (Production Possibility Frontier): Efficient output combinations given resources/technology। Inside point: potentially unused resources/inefficient production in the benchmark model; outside: infeasible with current resources/technology। A point on PPF need not satisfy consumers’ desired product mix। For representative-consumer illustration, IC tangent to PPF gives MRS=MRT; multiple consumers require their allocation too।
Firm side: Competitive producer maximizes pₓX+pᵧY over feasible production plans. At an interior smooth PPF optimum, pₓ−pᵧMRT=0। If MRT<pₓ/pᵧ, a small move toward more X raises output value; if MRT>pₓ/pᵧ, toward more Y। Consumer and firm must face the same relevant prices without wedges for textbook equality।
Factor clearing: Lˣ+Lʸ=L̄ और Kˣ+Kʸ=K̄। Household factor income and owned profits fund expenditure; goods clearing requires total consumption = produced supply plus any goods endowment।
Linear activity / zero-profit rule: One unit of activity uses aᴸ labour,aᴷ capital and produces one X। Unit cost c=w aᴸ+r aᴷ। Under constant returns and free scaling, equilibrium requires pₓ≤c; if output positive, pₓ=c। If pₓ>c and no capacity constraint, profit is unbounded; if pₓ<c, inactive firm chooses zero activity।
9. Existence, Uniqueness और Stability अलग हैं ⭐
| Question | Meaning | What does not follow automatically? |
|---|---|---|
| Existence | At least one admissible equilibrium है? | Unique / stable होना |
| Uniqueness | Normalization के बाद only one equilibrium price vector/allocation? | Adjustment convergence |
| Stability | Specified dynamic process perturbation के बाद वापस लाता है? | Global stability या uniqueness |
Existence: Standard sufficient packages include continuity, convexity, non-satiation and suitable endowment/technology feasibility conditions। Specific theorem की पूरी hypotheses पढ़ें; केवल “perfect competition” या equations = unknowns गिनना proof नहीं। Fixed-point theorems (Brouwer for appropriate continuous functions, Kakutani for appropriate correspondences) proof tools हैं; इन्हें equilibrium adjustment mechanisms न समझें।
Tâtonnement (trial-and-error price adjustment): Standard Walrasian auctioneer story में prices announce, agents desired trades submit, excess demand के अनुसार prices revise; clearing prices मिलने तक actual disequilibrium trade नहीं होता। यह theoretical price-discovery process है, every actual market की literal description नहीं।
At equilibrium zₓ(q*)=0। If z′ₓ(q*)<0: locally asymptotically stable; if >0: unstable। If =0: first-order test inconclusive; higher-order terms देखें।
Discrete rule: qₜ₊₁=qₜ+κzₓ(qₜ); local stability requires |1+κz′ₓ(q*)|<1।
10. NET advanced extensions / common confusions
- Homogeneity: z(tp)=z(p), t>0। If differentiable, J(p)p=0, where J=Dz। Hence full unnormalized price Jacobian has a zero direction; normalize before counting dynamic directions।
- Derivative of Walras’ Law: z(p)+J(p)ᵀp=0। At equilibrium z=0 ⇒ Jᵀp=0। Off equilibrium Jᵀp=0 blindly लिखना गलत।
- Slutsky versus GE Jacobian: A compensated individual-demand matrix has symmetry/negative-semidefinite restrictions under regular conditions। GE aggregate excess-demand Jacobian includes endowment-income effects; वह generally symmetric या negative semidefinite नहीं। Pure exchange में chain rule और Slutsky से Jₖⱼ=Σᵢ[Sᵢₖⱼ+(ωᵢⱼ−xᵢⱼ)∂xᵢₖ/∂mᵢ]। Endowment income derivative ωᵢⱼ है; uncompensated derivative से −xᵢⱼ term आता है।
- Gross substitutes: Good j की price बढ़ने पर other goods की aggregate excess demands do not fall in the relevant formulation। Appropriate strict gross-substitutes and regularity assumptions strong uniqueness/stability results दे सकते हैं। Weak nonnegativity अकेले every model में unique stable equilibrium नहीं देती।
- Sonnenschein–Mantel–Debreu insight: Well-behaved individual preferences do not generally force aggregate excess demand to have a simple downward-sloping shape। Continuity, degree-zero homogeneity और Walras’ Law जैसी basic aggregate restrictions automatic global uniqueness/stability सुनिश्चित नहीं करतीं। This is an advanced aggregate-demand result, not the Arrow–Debreu 1954 existence theorem।
- Free goods: z≤0,p≥0,p·z=0 allows excess supply only in zero-priced goods। Good positively priced है तो complementary slackness forces its excess demand zero।
- Uncertainty extension: Commodity can be identified by physical good, date, location and state। Complete contingent markets allow state-specific trades; expected-utility weights and contingent prices अलग objects हैं। Main risk topic में detail करेंगे।
- Convexity: Increasing returns/nonconvex technologies can make standard existence/supporting-price arguments fail; इससे every nonconvex economy has no equilibrium नहीं निकलता।
Welfare connection: Suitable competitive-market conditions और local non-satiation के साथ competitive equilibrium Pareto efficient होता है (First Welfare Theorem)। Efficiency equal income या fair distribution की guarantee नहीं। Second Theorem के decentralization result में additional convexity/support and wealth-redistribution conditions चाहिए। Welfare criteria और full theorem treatment अगली अलग Notes post में होगा।
11. Last-minute revision table ⭐
| Clue | Remember | Exam trap |
|---|---|---|
| Whole connected economy | GE: individual optimum + clearing | Market clearing alone incomplete |
| Walras book | 1874–1877; Elements of Pure Economics | 1954 translation ≠ original |
| Endowment income | mᵢ=p·ωᵢ | GE price change can change wealth |
| Numeraire | One positive price normalized to1 | Not zero / free good |
| Walras’ Law | Σpₖzₖ=0 at budget-balanced prices | Not Σzₖ=0; not only at equilibrium |
| n goods | At most n−1 independent clearing equations | Remaining price positive for implication |
| Box coordinates | B=totals−A | B origin top-right |
| Contract curve | All efficient feasible allocations | Not always diagonal / fair |
| Core, two persons | Efficient + individual rationality | Depends on initial endowment |
| Interior exchange | MRSᴬ=MRSᴮ=pₓ/pᵧ | Check budgets/corners too |
| Interior factor allocation | MRTSˣ=MRTSʸ=w/r | Not output-price ratio |
| Overall product mix | MRS=MRT=pₓ/pᵧ | PPF point alone insufficient |
| Arrow–Debreu | 1954 existence under assumptions | Existence ≠ uniqueness ≠ stability |
| Tâtonnement | Excess demand raises price | No disequilibrium trade in benchmark story |
| Discrete price adjustment | |1+κz′|<1 | Step size matters |
One-line memory: Consumer MRS, Producer MRTS, Products MRT; Walras weighted zero, Edgeworth two origins, Arrow existence.
हर section के बाद weak concepts की Notes में वापस revision करें।
Sources / publication records
Graphs और examples independently constructed हैं। Questions original exam-oriented practice हैं; verified official PYQs का दावा नहीं है। Uploaded NET और PGT syllabi की scope distinction ऊपर दी गई है।
- Jonathan Levin, Stanford: General Equilibrium (2006) — exchange, optimality, existence, production।
- Daniel Gottlieb, LSE: General Equilibrium Theory — Walras’ Law, multiplicity, stability, aggregate restrictions।
- Dave Donaldson, MIT 14.01 Lecture 12 (2025): GE with Production — factor markets, PPF, product mix।
- Bibliothèque nationale de France: original Walras book, 1874–1877।
- Digitized Edgeworth original book / bibliographic record, 1881।
- Econometrica July 1954: Arrow–Debreu original article record; April 1954: McKenzie original article record।
- Cowles Foundation: Debreu, Theory of Value (1959)।
- Marshall: Principles of Economics, original first-publication year1890।